The federal government's role in planning for, mitigating, responding to, and recovering from natural and man-made disasters dates back to the Congressional Act of 1803, which was enacted to provide relief from the consequences of a devastating wildfire in New Hampshire (Federal Emergency Management Agency, 2010). Successive disasters in our nation's history “have reached catastrophic proportions in terms of deaths, injuries, and property losses, focusing government and public attention on the need to develop formal systems to respond to such events” (Waugh & Tierney, 2007, p. 27). By the 1970s, more than 100 agencies were responsible for some element of emergency preparedness and response. Competing and sometimes duplicative programs were also established at the state and local levels, compounding the complexity of response efforts. This broad and uncoordinated approach has resulted in a fragmented response, with unclear roles and missions between government, the community and the private sector. Despite efforts to better organize response programs, “expectations regarding improved federal response to natural disasters have been shattered by FEMA's poor performance in addressing hurricanes” (Waugh & Tierney, 2007, p.33). The Department of Homeland Security (DHS), created to fill gaps in federal response capacity, was plagued by similar shortcomings (Fessler, 2008). These failures demonstrated that “the nation's emergency management system was broken and officials needed to rebuild local, state, and regional capabilities to reduce risks and respond to emergencies” (Waugh & Tierney, 2007, p.4). The current paradigm, therefore, must be realigned” and the reconstruction process should focus on two objectives: developing the capabilities of local emergency operators...... middle of paper ......ut/history.shtmFessler, P (2008). DHS is still dogged by questions about effectiveness. NPR. Retrieved August 19, 2011, from http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=17969438González, P. (2009). Disaster risk reduction and climate change: understanding threat and vulnerability, building adaptive capacity. Retrieved August 29, 2011 http://www.eird.org/wikien/images/DRRandCC_PGonzalez.pdfMileti, D.S. (1999). Disasters by design: A reassessment of natural hazards in the United States. Washington, DC: Joseph Henry Press.United Nations Development Programme. (2004). Reducing disaster risk: a challenge for development. New York: John S Swift.Waugh, W.L., Jr., & Tierney, K. (2007). Emergency Planning: Principles and Practice for Local Government. 2nd edition. Washington, DC: International City/County Management Association Press (ICMA)..