The Peloponnesian War, by Donald Kagan, reconstructs the work of Thucydides, describing the conflict in Athens, a democratic society in which the majority made choices to advance the city, and Sparta, a minimalist city with a mixed government and an emphasis on the military aspect, in the Hellenistic world and the final victory of the Spartans. The Rise of the Roman Empire, described by Polybius, tells of Rome, an expansionist empire with an almost politically leveled class system, and its victories over Carthage, a sparsely populated but wealthy mercantile state, in the Punic Wars. Both works serve to describe the complex situations and moves taken to accomplish what has become history, which can be simplified using a resources and capabilities framework where capability describes the ability to use strategic resources effectively. Using a framework of resources and capabilities, the ability of leaders to utilize allies, soldiers, and opportunities for technological advancement has led to victories and defeats for those involved in wars. Say no to plagiarism. Get a tailor-made essay on "Why Violent Video Games Shouldn't Be Banned"? Get an original essay Rome's greatest strength undoubtedly lies in how it treats its allies, hosting loyal and helpful city-states. Rome used a tiered system that would allow allies to compete with each other to help Rome more; the competition for a better level remained fierce due to the benefits granted to the ally, indicating a symbiotic relationship between Rome and its allies (Polybius 313). This system worked effectively as many states felt invested in Rome's success and therefore aligned their interests with Rome's goals. Roman civilization's ability to utilize its resources of allied city-states, gained through the continued protection of allies, and its ability to develop this alliance into a mutually beneficial alliance demonstrates the diplomatic capacity that Rome contained. Similarly, Sparta's diplomatic prowess, learned through its struggle with Athens, allowed them to seek more allies beyond just the resources of existing allies. Lysander's leadership allowed for a connection to the Persian Empire and a relationship that aided the final push to end the Peloponnesian War (Kagan 470). Sparta's prowess regarding its military prowess also attracted allies, such as Megara, who objected to Athens' hostile treatment (Kagan 19). While Rome and Sparta succeeded in this capacity, this represents a mistake by Athens, which failed to adequately manage this resource. Athens, like other empires, obtained tribute from its allies, but abused that power during the war to the discouragement of its empire; many protested against the increase in taxes imposed by Athens to replenish its treasury after the First Peloponnesian War. In fact, the treatment seemed so harsh that when Athens showed weakness after the defeat in the Sicilian expedition, many city-states defected (Kagan 189,328). This arose from a period of ineffective leadership, after the death of Cleon at the Battle of Amphipolis, and thus many policies decided by Nicias, a man unsuited to the aggressive state of war due to his "upright and reserved" disposition (Kagan 187, 99). Likewise, Carthage possessed the resource of allies, but the failure of its leadership to adequately protect them, as well as the mistake of the indecisive and demoralized Carthaginian leadership who “made no attempt to contest possession of the open countryside,” led to doubt its existence. Carthage Abilities. Rome seized this opportunity, attacking Syracuse to the point that it abandonedthe Carthaginian alliance to ally itself with Rome, as many other Sicilian city-states did (Polybius 56-7). The lack of aggressive leadership absent from Carthage, as from Rome, showed the lack of capacity required for wars to be fought, demonstrating their inability to adequately capitalize on resources due to mismatched leaders. Rome also possessed military generals who were skilled at creating grand strategy for their armies. The Roman Empire possessed the soldiers needed to wage land warfare, but needed a capable general to utilize this strategic asset. Scipio served this purpose, as he possessed such talent "that all who were subjected to his authority were moved of their own accord to pay him this tribute and to speak of him as a king" (Polybius 423). His brilliance, demonstrated through his grand strategy, allowed Rome to succeed in battle; indeed, they revered him for his talents and the skill he demonstrated. Carthage made up for its lack of soldiers by spending its wealth to hire mercenaries from Africa; Indeed, Carthage's financial resources helped prepare it for war, and the civilization's ability to use this advantage shaped its military path. Despite having acquired the necessary forces, the decisions of the generals Hamilcar and Hannibal guided Carthage's successes and failures, not to mention that “the Carthaginians depend at all times on the courage of the mercenaries to safeguard their prospects of freedom” (Polybius 345). Sparta also used “outside” men for its army, but made sure not to depend entirely on them as the majority of the army was still made up of its original skilled warriors. He allowed men belonging to the mothakes class, below the aristocrats, to rise to power, and also helots to join the army and fight for their freedom; this system allowed Sparta to increase the size of its army during the prolonged war (Kagan 75). Their mentality of quick victory had changed since the start of the war, but the sentiment of attacking to win allowed Sparta to proceed under its own power until it recognized the need for a strong navy and broader grand strategy, provided by leader Lysander (Kagan 469). The leaders' proper use of soldiers shows how the military proceeded in these wars. Technological achievements, due to the skills of Roman engineers, also helped shape the outcome of battles. For example, before the Punic Wars, Rome did not have a good navy, but created one after plundering Carthage's ships and creating blueprints for ships to be built (Polybius 64). This ship asset would have been useless without its replica and indeed would have remained inferior to Carthage's might if it were not for innovations such as the 'crow', a device used to board other ships; in fact, this device proved effective in helping the Romans win the Battle of Mylae and the Battle of Ecnomus (Polybius 66, 68). Thanks to the genius of Archimedes, Syracuse also managed to build a fortress, reminiscent of the long walls of Athens, a situation in which the intellectual resources of a single person were used by the city to provide a strong military and offensive defense during the Second Punic War . (Polybius 365-6). Likewise, Athens used the knowledge gained from its shipbuilding industry to further improve the navy and enhance other technological capabilities within the city. In this way, capable workers capable of using technological knowledge helped shape the military techniques of these civilizations, often with the city's encouragement and guidance. 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